顾曰国，现任中国社会科学院语言研究所研究员，博士生导师，当代语言学研究室主任，《当代语言学》杂志主编之一；同时兼任北京外国语大学校长助理、网络教育学院常务副院长，博士生导师。1985年获英国兰开斯特大学语言学系语言研究优等硕士学位，1987年获该系语用学与修辞学博士学位，师从英国学术院院士Leech院士。在国际刊物上发表论文21篇，国内杂志上发表文章18篇，国际杂志特邀专号主编2期，合编著学术著作1部，英语和语言学教材32部。从1994年起，任国际《语用学》杂志咨询编审，2000年当选为国际语用学协会常务理事。2002年起，任国际《篇章学》杂志咨询编审。同时还任中国功能语言学协会常务理事；是教育部远程教育专家组成员。先后获霍英东教育基金1993年第四届青年教师科研类一等奖，1994年北京市哲学社会科学优秀论文一等奖，1995年中国“国氏”博士后奖，1997年英国学术院王宽城基金会奖。2002年获教育部中央电大系统优秀教材一等奖。国家“百千万工程”千名学术带头人之一。国内外大学兼职有：英国诺丁汉大学特聘教授、江西财经大学外语学院名誉院长、山西大学名誉教授等。短期专题讲学的大学有：香港大学、香港理工大学、香港浸会大学等。国际学术会议主题报告11次。
quoted from: http://ling.cass.cn/dangdai/editors/guyg_eng.htm
(including English version)
2009年5月16日 星期六
Geoffrey Leech. (quoted from wikipedia)
Geoffrey Leech was Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002.He then became Research Professor in English Linguistics. He has been Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, since 2002.
Leech's main academic interests are:English grammar；Semantics；Stylistics；Pragmatics； Corpus linguistics；Corpus-based natural language processing by computer. http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/profiles/Geoffrey-Leech/
Leech's main academic interests are:English grammar；Semantics；Stylistics；Pragmatics； Corpus linguistics；Corpus-based natural language processing by computer. http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/profiles/Geoffrey-Leech/
Something about multimodality. (quoted from wikipedia)
(1) An introduction to M.A.K Halliday---
Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (often M.A.K. Halliday) (born 1925) is an Australian linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model, the systemic functional grammar (which also goes by the name of systemic functional linguistics [SFL]).
Halliday was born and raised in England. He took a BA Honours degree in Modern Chinese Language and Literature (Mandarin) at the University of London. He then lived for three years in China, where he studied under Luo Changpei(羅常培) at Peking University and under Wang Li(王力) at Lingnan University, before returning to take a PhD in Chinese Linguistics at Cambridge. Having taught Chinese for a number of years, he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics, and developed systemic functional grammar, elaborating on the foundations laid by his British teacher J. R. Firth and a group of European linguists of the early 20th century, the Prague School. His seminal paper on this model was published in 1961. He became the Professor of Linguistics at the University of London in 1965. In 1976 he moved to Australia as Foundation Professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney, where he remained until he retired. The impact of his work extends beyond linguistics into the study of visual and multimodal communication, and he is considered to have founded the field of social semiotics. He has worked in various regions of language study, both theoretical and applied, and has been especially concerned with applying the understanding of the basic principles of language to the theory and practices of education. He received the status of emeritus professor(榮譽教授) of the University of Sydney and Macquarie University, Sydney, in 1987, and is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong. With his seminal lecture "New Ways of Meaning: the Challenge to Applied Linguistics" held at the AILA conference in Saloniki (1990), he became one of the pioneers of eco-critical discourse analysis (a discipline of ecolinguistics).
(2) Social semiotics and multimodality---
Social semiotics is currently extending this general framework beyond its linguistic origins to account for the growing importance of sound and visual images, and how modes of communication are combined in both traditional and digital media (see, for example, Kress and van Leeuwen, 1996), thus approaching semiotics of culture (Randviir 2004). Theorists such as Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen have built on Halliday's framework by providing new "grammars" for other semiotic modes. Like language, these grammars are seen as socially formed and changeable sets of available "resources" for making meaning, which are also shaped by the semiotic metafunctions originally identified by Halliday. The visual and aural modes have received particular attention. Accounting for multimodality (communication in and across a range of semiotic modes - verbal, visual, and aural) is considered a particularly important ongoing project, given the importance of the visual mode in contemporary communication.
Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (often M.A.K. Halliday) (born 1925) is an Australian linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model, the systemic functional grammar (which also goes by the name of systemic functional linguistics [SFL]).
Halliday was born and raised in England. He took a BA Honours degree in Modern Chinese Language and Literature (Mandarin) at the University of London. He then lived for three years in China, where he studied under Luo Changpei(羅常培) at Peking University and under Wang Li(王力) at Lingnan University, before returning to take a PhD in Chinese Linguistics at Cambridge. Having taught Chinese for a number of years, he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics, and developed systemic functional grammar, elaborating on the foundations laid by his British teacher J. R. Firth and a group of European linguists of the early 20th century, the Prague School. His seminal paper on this model was published in 1961. He became the Professor of Linguistics at the University of London in 1965. In 1976 he moved to Australia as Foundation Professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney, where he remained until he retired. The impact of his work extends beyond linguistics into the study of visual and multimodal communication, and he is considered to have founded the field of social semiotics. He has worked in various regions of language study, both theoretical and applied, and has been especially concerned with applying the understanding of the basic principles of language to the theory and practices of education. He received the status of emeritus professor(榮譽教授) of the University of Sydney and Macquarie University, Sydney, in 1987, and is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong. With his seminal lecture "New Ways of Meaning: the Challenge to Applied Linguistics" held at the AILA conference in Saloniki (1990), he became one of the pioneers of eco-critical discourse analysis (a discipline of ecolinguistics).
(2) Social semiotics and multimodality---
Social semiotics is currently extending this general framework beyond its linguistic origins to account for the growing importance of sound and visual images, and how modes of communication are combined in both traditional and digital media (see, for example, Kress and van Leeuwen, 1996), thus approaching semiotics of culture (Randviir 2004). Theorists such as Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen have built on Halliday's framework by providing new "grammars" for other semiotic modes. Like language, these grammars are seen as socially formed and changeable sets of available "resources" for making meaning, which are also shaped by the semiotic metafunctions originally identified by Halliday. The visual and aural modes have received particular attention. Accounting for multimodality (communication in and across a range of semiotic modes - verbal, visual, and aural) is considered a particularly important ongoing project, given the importance of the visual mode in contemporary communication.
John M. Swales. (quoted from wikipedia)
John Swales is a linguist known for his work on genre analysis in applied linguistics and ESL. He is a Professor of Linguistics and former Director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan. In addition to writing scholarly books and publications, John Swales is unique among applied linguists in that he is also the author of several writing textbooks for students whose native language is not English. http://www.lsa.umich.edu/ling/people/John_Swales.htm http://www.flipkart.com/genre-analysis-john-swales-michael/0521338131-fzw3f9osy2
2009年4月28日 星期二
Ferdinand de Saussure.(quoted from wikipedia)
Ferdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 - 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century. Saussure is widely considered to be one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics, and his ideas have had a monumental impact on literary and cultural theory and interpretation.
§ Biography §
Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure, born in Geneva in 1857, showed early signs of considerable talent and intellectual ability. After a year of studying Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig(萊比錫) in 1876. Two years later at 21 years Saussure studied for a year at Berlin, where he wrote his only full-length work, Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes (Thesis on the Primitive Vowel System in Indo-European Languages). He returned to Leipzig and was awarded his doctorate in 1880. Soon afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would lecture on ancient and modern languages. He taught in Paris for 11 years before returning to Geneva in 1891. Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1906 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics that would consume the greater part of his attention until his death in 1913.
§ Course in General Linguistics §
Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye on the basis of notes taken from Saussure's lectures at the University of Geneva. The Course became one of the seminal linguistics works of the 20th century, not primarily for the content (many of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 19th century linguists), but rather for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena.
Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include the notion of the linguistic sign, the signifier, the signified, and the referent.
In 1996, a manuscript of Saussure's was discovered in his house in Geneva. This text was published as Writings in General Linguistics, and offers significant clarifications of the Course.
§ Laryngeal theory§
While a student, Saussure published an important work in Indo-European philology(語文學，語文研究) that proposed the existence of a class of sounds in Proto-Indo-European called sonant coefficients. The Danish scholar Hermann Möller suggested that these might actually be laryngeal consonants, leading to what is now known as the laryngeal theory. It has been argued that the problem Saussure encountered, of trying to explain how he was able to make systematic and predictive hypotheses from known linguistic data to unknown linguistic data, stimulated his development of structuralism. Saussure's predictions about the existence of sonant coefficients/laryngeals and their evolution proved a resounding success when the Hittite texts were discovered and deciphered, some 20 years later.
§ Legacy §
The impact of Saussure's ideas on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century cannot be overstated. Two currents of thought emerged independently of each other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussurian thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics. (1)In Europe, the most important work was being done by the Prague School(布拉格學派). Most notably, Nikolay Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson headed the efforts of the Prague School in setting the course of phonological theory in the decades following 1940. Jakobson's universalizing structural-functional theory of phonology, based on a markedness hierarchy of distinctive features, was the first successful solution of a plane of linguistic analysis according to the Saussurean hypotheses. Elsewhere, Louis Hjelmslev and the Copenhagen School(哥本哈根學派) proposed new interpretations of linguistics from structuralist theoretical frameworks. (2)In America, Saussure's ideas informed the distributionalism of Leonard Bloomfield and the post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism of those scholars guided by and furthering the practices established in Bloomfield's investigations and analyses of language, such as Eugene Nida, Bernard Bloch, George L. Trager, Rulon S. Wells III, Charles Hockett, and through Zellig Harris, the young Noam Chomsky. In addition to Chomsky's theory of Transformational grammar, other contemporary developments of structuralism include Kenneth Pike's theory of tagmemics, Sidney Lamb's theory of stratificational grammar, and Michael Silverstein's work.
Outside linguistics, the principles and methods employed by structuralism were soon adopted by scholars and literary critics, such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, and Claude Lévi-Strauss, and implemented in their respective areas of study. However, their expansive interpretations of Saussure's theories, which contained ambiguities to begin with, and their application of those theories to non-linguistic fields of study such as sociology or anthropology, led to theoretical difficulties and proclamations of the end of structuralism in those disciplines.
§ Biography §
Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure, born in Geneva in 1857, showed early signs of considerable talent and intellectual ability. After a year of studying Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig(萊比錫) in 1876. Two years later at 21 years Saussure studied for a year at Berlin, where he wrote his only full-length work, Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes (Thesis on the Primitive Vowel System in Indo-European Languages). He returned to Leipzig and was awarded his doctorate in 1880. Soon afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would lecture on ancient and modern languages. He taught in Paris for 11 years before returning to Geneva in 1891. Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1906 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics that would consume the greater part of his attention until his death in 1913.
§ Course in General Linguistics §
Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye on the basis of notes taken from Saussure's lectures at the University of Geneva. The Course became one of the seminal linguistics works of the 20th century, not primarily for the content (many of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 19th century linguists), but rather for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena.
Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include the notion of the linguistic sign, the signifier, the signified, and the referent.
In 1996, a manuscript of Saussure's was discovered in his house in Geneva. This text was published as Writings in General Linguistics, and offers significant clarifications of the Course.
§ Laryngeal theory§
While a student, Saussure published an important work in Indo-European philology(語文學，語文研究) that proposed the existence of a class of sounds in Proto-Indo-European called sonant coefficients. The Danish scholar Hermann Möller suggested that these might actually be laryngeal consonants, leading to what is now known as the laryngeal theory. It has been argued that the problem Saussure encountered, of trying to explain how he was able to make systematic and predictive hypotheses from known linguistic data to unknown linguistic data, stimulated his development of structuralism. Saussure's predictions about the existence of sonant coefficients/laryngeals and their evolution proved a resounding success when the Hittite texts were discovered and deciphered, some 20 years later.
§ Legacy §
The impact of Saussure's ideas on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century cannot be overstated. Two currents of thought emerged independently of each other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussurian thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics. (1)In Europe, the most important work was being done by the Prague School(布拉格學派). Most notably, Nikolay Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson headed the efforts of the Prague School in setting the course of phonological theory in the decades following 1940. Jakobson's universalizing structural-functional theory of phonology, based on a markedness hierarchy of distinctive features, was the first successful solution of a plane of linguistic analysis according to the Saussurean hypotheses. Elsewhere, Louis Hjelmslev and the Copenhagen School(哥本哈根學派) proposed new interpretations of linguistics from structuralist theoretical frameworks. (2)In America, Saussure's ideas informed the distributionalism of Leonard Bloomfield and the post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism of those scholars guided by and furthering the practices established in Bloomfield's investigations and analyses of language, such as Eugene Nida, Bernard Bloch, George L. Trager, Rulon S. Wells III, Charles Hockett, and through Zellig Harris, the young Noam Chomsky. In addition to Chomsky's theory of Transformational grammar, other contemporary developments of structuralism include Kenneth Pike's theory of tagmemics, Sidney Lamb's theory of stratificational grammar, and Michael Silverstein's work.
Outside linguistics, the principles and methods employed by structuralism were soon adopted by scholars and literary critics, such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, and Claude Lévi-Strauss, and implemented in their respective areas of study. However, their expansive interpretations of Saussure's theories, which contained ambiguities to begin with, and their application of those theories to non-linguistic fields of study such as sociology or anthropology, led to theoretical difficulties and proclamations of the end of structuralism in those disciplines.
Syllable weight.(quoted from wikipedia)
In linguistics, syllable weight is the concept that syllables pattern together according to the number and/or duration of segments(=phonemes) in the rime(=rhyme. The rime/rhyme of a syllable consists of a nucleus and an optional coda.). In classical poetry, both Greek and Latin, distinctions of syllable weight were fundamental to the meter(=metre. The basic rhythmic structure of a verse.) of the line.
§ Syllable weight in linguistics §
A heavy syllable is a syllable with a branching nucleus or a branching rime. A branching nucleus generally means the syllable has a long vowel or a diphthong; this type of syllable is abbreviated CVV. A syllable with a branching rime is a closed syllable, that is, one with a coda (one or more consonants at the end of the syllable); this type of syllable is abbreviated CVC. In some languages, both CVV and CVC syllables are heavy, while a syllable with a short vowel as the nucleus and no coda (a CV syllable) is a light syllable. In other languages, only CVV syllables are heavy, while CVC and CV syllables are light. Some languages distinguish a third type, CVVC syllables (with both a branching nucleus and a coda) and/or CVCC syllables (with a coda consisting of two or more consonants) as superheavy syllables.
In moraic theory, heavy syllables are analyzed as containing two moras, light syllables one, and superheavy syllables three.
The distinction between heavy and light syllables plays an important role in the phonology of some languages, especially with regards to the assignment of stress. For instance, in the Sezer stress pattern in Turkish, the main stress occurs as an iamb (i.e. penultimate(倒數第二的) stress) one syllable to the left of the final syllable: (L'L)σ. However, when the foot contains a heavy syllable in the first syllable, the iamb shifts to a trochee (i.e. antepenultimate stress) because there is a requirement that main stress fall on a heavy syllable whenever possible: ('HL)σ, and not *(H'L)σ.
§ Syllable weight in linguistics §
A heavy syllable is a syllable with a branching nucleus or a branching rime. A branching nucleus generally means the syllable has a long vowel or a diphthong; this type of syllable is abbreviated CVV. A syllable with a branching rime is a closed syllable, that is, one with a coda (one or more consonants at the end of the syllable); this type of syllable is abbreviated CVC. In some languages, both CVV and CVC syllables are heavy, while a syllable with a short vowel as the nucleus and no coda (a CV syllable) is a light syllable. In other languages, only CVV syllables are heavy, while CVC and CV syllables are light. Some languages distinguish a third type, CVVC syllables (with both a branching nucleus and a coda) and/or CVCC syllables (with a coda consisting of two or more consonants) as superheavy syllables.
In moraic theory, heavy syllables are analyzed as containing two moras, light syllables one, and superheavy syllables three.
The distinction between heavy and light syllables plays an important role in the phonology of some languages, especially with regards to the assignment of stress. For instance, in the Sezer stress pattern in Turkish, the main stress occurs as an iamb (i.e. penultimate(倒數第二的) stress) one syllable to the left of the final syllable: (L'L)σ. However, when the foot contains a heavy syllable in the first syllable, the iamb shifts to a trochee (i.e. antepenultimate stress) because there is a requirement that main stress fall on a heavy syllable whenever possible: ('HL)σ, and not *(H'L)σ.
Phonological hierarchy.(quoted from wikipedia)
Phonological hierarchy describes a series of increasingly smaller regions of a phonological utterance. From larger to smaller units, it is as follows:
(1)Utterance
(2)Prosodic declination unit (DU) / intonational phrase (I-phrase)
(3)Prosodic intonation unit (IU) / phonological phrase (P-phrase)
(4)Prosodic list unit (LU)
(5)Clitic group
(6)Phonological word (P-word, ω)
(7)Foot (F): "strong-weak" syllable sequences such as English ladder, button, eat it
(8)Syllable (σ): e.g. cat (one syllable), ladder (two syllables)
(9)Mora (μ) ("half-syllable")
(10)Segment (phoneme): e.g. [k], [æ] and [t] in cat
(11)Feature
The hierarchy from the mora upwards is also called the prosodic hierarchy.
Phonologists disagree on the arrangement and inclusion of units in the hierarchy. For example, the clitic group is not universally recognised, and the P-phrase and IU come from different traditions and have different definitions.
(1)Utterance
(2)Prosodic declination unit (DU) / intonational phrase (I-phrase)
(3)Prosodic intonation unit (IU) / phonological phrase (P-phrase)
(4)Prosodic list unit (LU)
(5)Clitic group
(6)Phonological word (P-word, ω)
(7)Foot (F): "strong-weak" syllable sequences such as English ladder, button, eat it
(8)Syllable (σ): e.g. cat (one syllable), ladder (two syllables)
(9)Mora (μ) ("half-syllable")
(10)Segment (phoneme): e.g. [k], [æ] and [t] in cat
(11)Feature
The hierarchy from the mora upwards is also called the prosodic hierarchy.
Phonologists disagree on the arrangement and inclusion of units in the hierarchy. For example, the clitic group is not universally recognised, and the P-phrase and IU come from different traditions and have different definitions.
2009年4月18日 星期六
Mora (quoted from wikipedia)
Mora (plural moras or morae) is a unit of sound used in phonology that determines syllable weight (which in turn determines stress or timing) in some languages. Like many technical linguistics terms, the exact definition of mora varies. Perhaps the most succinct working definition was provided by the American linguist James D. McCawley in 1968: a mora is “Something of which a long syllable consists of two and a short syllable consists of one.” The term comes from the Latin word for “linger, delay”, which was also used to translate the Greek word chronos (time) in its metrical sense.
A syllable containing one mora is said to be monomoraic; one with two moras is called bimoraic.
In general, moras are formed as follows:
(1)A syllable onset (the first consonant[s] of the syllable) does not represent any mora.
(2)The syllable nucleus represents one mora in the case of a short vowel, and two moras in the case of a long vowel or diphthong. Consonants serving as syllable nuclei also represent one mora if short and two if long. (Slovak is an example of a language that has both long and short consonantal nuclei.)
(3)In some languages (for example, Japanese), the coda represents one mora, and in others (for example, Irish) it does not. In English, the codas of stressed syllables represent a mora (thus, the word cat is bimoraic), but for unstressed syllables it is not clear whether the codas do (the second syllable of the word rabbit might be monomoraic).
(4)In some languages, a syllable with a long vowel or diphthong in the nucleus and one or more consonants in the coda is said to be trimoraic (see pluti).
In general, monomoraic syllables are said to be light syllables, bimoraic syllables are said to be heavy syllables, and trimoraic syllables (in languages that have them) are said to be superheavy syllables. Most linguists believe that no language uses syllables containing four or more moras.
In India, the mora was an acknowledged phenomenon well over two millennia ago in ancient Indian linguistics schools studying the dominant scholarly and religious lingua franca of Sanskrit. The mora was first expressed in India as the mātrā. For example, the short vowel "a" (pronounced like a schwa) is assigned a value of one mātrā, the long vowel "ā" is assigned a value of two mātrās, and the complex vowel "ai" (which is composed of three simple short vowels, namely "a"+"a"+"i", or one long and one short vowel, namely "ā"+"i") is assigned a value of three mātrās. Sanskrit prosody and metrics has a deep history of taking into account moraic weight, as it were, rather than straight syllables, divided into "laghu" ("light") and "guru" ("heavy") feet based on how many moras can be isolated in each word. Thus, for example, the word "kartṛi", meaning "agent" or "doer", does not contain, contrary to intuitive English prosodic principles, simply two syllabic units, but rather contains, in order, a "guru"/"heavy" foot and a "laghu"/"light" foot. The reason is that the conjoined consonants 'rt' render the normally light 'ka' syllable heavy.
Japanese is a language famous for its moraic qualities. Most dialects, including the standard, use moras (in Japanese, onji) as the basis of the sound system rather than syllables. For example, haiku(三行俳句詩) in modern Japanese do not follow the pattern 5 syllables/7 syllables/5 syllables, as commonly believed, but rather the pattern 5 moras/7 moras/5 moras. As one example, the Japanese syllable-final n is moraic, as is the first part of a geminate consonant. For example, the word Nippon (one of the pronunciations of 日本, the name for "Japan" in Japanese) has four moras (ni-p-po-n); the four characters used in the hiragana spelling にっぽん match these four moras one to one. Thus, in Japanese, the words Tōkyō (to-o-kyo-o とうきょう), Ōsaka (o-o-sa-ka おおさか), and Nagasaki (na-ga-sa-ki ながさき) all have four moras, even though they have two, three, and four syllables, respectively.
In Luganda, a short vowel constitutes one mora while a long vowel constitutes two moras. A simple consonant has no moras, and a doubled or prenasalised consonant has one. No syllable may contain more than three moras. The tone system in Luganda is based on moras.
In Hawaiian, both syllables and moras are important. Stress falls on the penultimate(倒數第二的) mora, though in words long enough to have two stresses, only the final stress is predictable. However, although a diphthong, such as oi, consists of two moras, stress may only fall on the first, a restriction not found with other vowel sequences such as io. That is, there is a distinction between oi, a bimoraic syllable, and io, which is two syllables.
A syllable containing one mora is said to be monomoraic; one with two moras is called bimoraic.
In general, moras are formed as follows:
(1)A syllable onset (the first consonant[s] of the syllable) does not represent any mora.
(2)The syllable nucleus represents one mora in the case of a short vowel, and two moras in the case of a long vowel or diphthong. Consonants serving as syllable nuclei also represent one mora if short and two if long. (Slovak is an example of a language that has both long and short consonantal nuclei.)
(3)In some languages (for example, Japanese), the coda represents one mora, and in others (for example, Irish) it does not. In English, the codas of stressed syllables represent a mora (thus, the word cat is bimoraic), but for unstressed syllables it is not clear whether the codas do (the second syllable of the word rabbit might be monomoraic).
(4)In some languages, a syllable with a long vowel or diphthong in the nucleus and one or more consonants in the coda is said to be trimoraic (see pluti).
In general, monomoraic syllables are said to be light syllables, bimoraic syllables are said to be heavy syllables, and trimoraic syllables (in languages that have them) are said to be superheavy syllables. Most linguists believe that no language uses syllables containing four or more moras.
In India, the mora was an acknowledged phenomenon well over two millennia ago in ancient Indian linguistics schools studying the dominant scholarly and religious lingua franca of Sanskrit. The mora was first expressed in India as the mātrā. For example, the short vowel "a" (pronounced like a schwa) is assigned a value of one mātrā, the long vowel "ā" is assigned a value of two mātrās, and the complex vowel "ai" (which is composed of three simple short vowels, namely "a"+"a"+"i", or one long and one short vowel, namely "ā"+"i") is assigned a value of three mātrās. Sanskrit prosody and metrics has a deep history of taking into account moraic weight, as it were, rather than straight syllables, divided into "laghu" ("light") and "guru" ("heavy") feet based on how many moras can be isolated in each word. Thus, for example, the word "kartṛi", meaning "agent" or "doer", does not contain, contrary to intuitive English prosodic principles, simply two syllabic units, but rather contains, in order, a "guru"/"heavy" foot and a "laghu"/"light" foot. The reason is that the conjoined consonants 'rt' render the normally light 'ka' syllable heavy.
Japanese is a language famous for its moraic qualities. Most dialects, including the standard, use moras (in Japanese, onji) as the basis of the sound system rather than syllables. For example, haiku(三行俳句詩) in modern Japanese do not follow the pattern 5 syllables/7 syllables/5 syllables, as commonly believed, but rather the pattern 5 moras/7 moras/5 moras. As one example, the Japanese syllable-final n is moraic, as is the first part of a geminate consonant. For example, the word Nippon (one of the pronunciations of 日本, the name for "Japan" in Japanese) has four moras (ni-p-po-n); the four characters used in the hiragana spelling にっぽん match these four moras one to one. Thus, in Japanese, the words Tōkyō (to-o-kyo-o とうきょう), Ōsaka (o-o-sa-ka おおさか), and Nagasaki (na-ga-sa-ki ながさき) all have four moras, even though they have two, three, and four syllables, respectively.
In Luganda, a short vowel constitutes one mora while a long vowel constitutes two moras. A simple consonant has no moras, and a doubled or prenasalised consonant has one. No syllable may contain more than three moras. The tone system in Luganda is based on moras.
In Hawaiian, both syllables and moras are important. Stress falls on the penultimate(倒數第二的) mora, though in words long enough to have two stresses, only the final stress is predictable. However, although a diphthong, such as oi, consists of two moras, stress may only fall on the first, a restriction not found with other vowel sequences such as io. That is, there is a distinction between oi, a bimoraic syllable, and io, which is two syllables.
2009年4月5日 星期日
Experimental Approaches To Phonology---Chapter 1: Methods in Phonology.
In part I, they delineate various theoretical considerations and provide background concerning the application of methods from other sciences.
Chapter 1: Methods in Phonology
John J. Ohala examines the significance of methods in scientific research and in advancing phonological theories, and explores methods as a means of change within a discipline.
Broadly speaking, a scientific discipline can be characterized by:
---the questions it asks;
---the answers given to the questions, that is, hypotheses or theories;
---the methods used to marshal evidence in support of the theories.
The above discipline applies to phonology:
(1)Questions─
1.1 How is language and its parts represented in the mind of
the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can
we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as
a function of context and speaking style?
1.2 How, physically and physiologically, does speech work─the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
***Q: What is speech perception?(The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans are able to interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Speech research has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.
1.3 How and why does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and languages, and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
***Q: What is phonotactics? (The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: Phonotactics is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints.
Phonotactic constraints are language specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ are not allowed, although they are in English. Similarly, the sounds /kn/ and /ɡn/ are not permitted at the beginning of a word in Modern English but are in German and Dutch, and were permitted in Old and Middle English.
Syllables have the following internal segmental structure:
‧Onset (optional)
‧Rime (obligatory, comprises Nucleus and Coda): Nucleus (obligatory);Coda (optional)
Both onset and coda may be empty, forming a vowel-only syllable, or alternatively, the nucleus can be occupied by a syllabic consonant.
1.4 How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
***Q: What is communication disorders? (The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: A communication disorder - speech and language disorders which refer to problems in communication and in related areas such as oral motor function. The delays and disorders can range from simple sound substitution to the inability to understand or use language.
Examples of communication disorders:
‧Autism(自閉症)--A developmental defect that affects understanding of emotional communication.
‧Aphasia(失語症)--Loss of the ability to produce or comprehend language.
‧Learning disability--Both speaking and listening components of the definition.
‧Dysnomia--Deficit involving word retrieval.
‧Asperger Syndrome--Areas of social and pragmatic language.
‧Semantic Pragmatic Disorder--Challenges with the semantic and pragmatic aspects of language.
‧Blindness--A defect of the eye or visual system.
‧Deafness--A defect of the ear or auditory system.
‧Dyslexia(誦讀困難)--A defect of the systems used in reading.
‧Dyscalculia--A defect of the systems used in communicating numbers.
‧Expressive language disorder--Affects speaking and understanding where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
‧Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder--Affects speaking, understanding, reading and writing where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
‧Speech disorders such as cluttering(組織凌亂), stuttering(結巴), oesophageal voice, speech sound disorder, specific language impairment, dysarthria.
1.5 How can the fuctions of speech be enhanced and amplified?
1.6 How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
1.7 How is sound associated with meaning?
1.8 How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation between human speech and non-human communication?
As soon as any question receives an answer at one level, more detailed questions arise no matter how good an answer is provided at any given level.
(2) Theories─
2.1 There has been an abundance of theories regarding the psychological representation of sound patterns in language and the operations performed on them.
2.2 There have been many theories concerning the mechanisms of sound change.
‧Involve teleological elements: some suggest that sound change represented a
continual competition between the goals of making speech easier to produce and making it easier to perceive.
‧ Eliminate a teleological element: other emphasize the role played by listeners’ misperception or misparsings of the speech signal.
(3) Methods─
3.1 It is the methods employed by scientific discipplines─especially those that are experimental or fundamentally empirical─that constitute the principal engine for refinement and productive change in a discipline, helping to moderate the pace with which one theory supplants another. Methods tend to accumulate in a discipline. Occasionally the development of new methods can revolutionize a discipline.
3.2 Three key elements of what has been called the "scientific method" are:
First, to present data in an objective way. With minimal or no influence from the act of observing, especially that from the observer will help to insulate the data from the biases and beliefs of those who espouse the theories.
Second, data presented quantitatively, that is numerically. Data presented in a quantified way will avoid ambiguity; it is more precise, less likely to be misinterpreted. Moreover, it is optimal if the hypothesis or theory or model being tested is also expressed quantitatively.
Third, to present evidence that overcomes doubt as to its relevance to a particular hypothesis or theory.
(4) A “methodological revolution” has occurred within phonology:
4.1 The emergence of linguistic phonetics (Ladefoged 1971) and experimental phonology (J. Ohala and Jaeger 1986).
4.2 The Laboratory Phonology conferences (Kingston and Beckman 1990).
4.3 The greater incidence of papers at professional conferences where phonetic and psycholinguistic evidence is given in support of phonological theories at many meetings.
4.4 Several volumes or series of volumes.
4.5 An increase in the number of experimental and large corpus-based phonology papers in scholarly journals.
Chapter 1: Methods in Phonology
John J. Ohala examines the significance of methods in scientific research and in advancing phonological theories, and explores methods as a means of change within a discipline.
Broadly speaking, a scientific discipline can be characterized by:
---the questions it asks;
---the answers given to the questions, that is, hypotheses or theories;
---the methods used to marshal evidence in support of the theories.
The above discipline applies to phonology:
(1)Questions─
1.1 How is language and its parts represented in the mind of
the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can
we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as
a function of context and speaking style?
1.2 How, physically and physiologically, does speech work─the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
***Q: What is speech perception?(The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans are able to interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Speech research has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.
1.3 How and why does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and languages, and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
***Q: What is phonotactics? (The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: Phonotactics is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints.
Phonotactic constraints are language specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ are not allowed, although they are in English. Similarly, the sounds /kn/ and /ɡn/ are not permitted at the beginning of a word in Modern English but are in German and Dutch, and were permitted in Old and Middle English.
Syllables have the following internal segmental structure:
‧Onset (optional)
‧Rime (obligatory, comprises Nucleus and Coda): Nucleus (obligatory);Coda (optional)
Both onset and coda may be empty, forming a vowel-only syllable, or alternatively, the nucleus can be occupied by a syllabic consonant.
1.4 How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
***Q: What is communication disorders? (The answer is quoted from wikipedia.)
***A: A communication disorder - speech and language disorders which refer to problems in communication and in related areas such as oral motor function. The delays and disorders can range from simple sound substitution to the inability to understand or use language.
Examples of communication disorders:
‧Autism(自閉症)--A developmental defect that affects understanding of emotional communication.
‧Aphasia(失語症)--Loss of the ability to produce or comprehend language.
‧Learning disability--Both speaking and listening components of the definition.
‧Dysnomia--Deficit involving word retrieval.
‧Asperger Syndrome--Areas of social and pragmatic language.
‧Semantic Pragmatic Disorder--Challenges with the semantic and pragmatic aspects of language.
‧Blindness--A defect of the eye or visual system.
‧Deafness--A defect of the ear or auditory system.
‧Dyslexia(誦讀困難)--A defect of the systems used in reading.
‧Dyscalculia--A defect of the systems used in communicating numbers.
‧Expressive language disorder--Affects speaking and understanding where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
‧Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder--Affects speaking, understanding, reading and writing where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
‧Speech disorders such as cluttering(組織凌亂), stuttering(結巴), oesophageal voice, speech sound disorder, specific language impairment, dysarthria.
1.5 How can the fuctions of speech be enhanced and amplified?
1.6 How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
1.7 How is sound associated with meaning?
1.8 How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation between human speech and non-human communication?
As soon as any question receives an answer at one level, more detailed questions arise no matter how good an answer is provided at any given level.
(2) Theories─
2.1 There has been an abundance of theories regarding the psychological representation of sound patterns in language and the operations performed on them.
2.2 There have been many theories concerning the mechanisms of sound change.
‧Involve teleological elements: some suggest that sound change represented a
continual competition between the goals of making speech easier to produce and making it easier to perceive.
‧ Eliminate a teleological element: other emphasize the role played by listeners’ misperception or misparsings of the speech signal.
(3) Methods─
3.1 It is the methods employed by scientific discipplines─especially those that are experimental or fundamentally empirical─that constitute the principal engine for refinement and productive change in a discipline, helping to moderate the pace with which one theory supplants another. Methods tend to accumulate in a discipline. Occasionally the development of new methods can revolutionize a discipline.
3.2 Three key elements of what has been called the "scientific method" are:
First, to present data in an objective way. With minimal or no influence from the act of observing, especially that from the observer will help to insulate the data from the biases and beliefs of those who espouse the theories.
Second, data presented quantitatively, that is numerically. Data presented in a quantified way will avoid ambiguity; it is more precise, less likely to be misinterpreted. Moreover, it is optimal if the hypothesis or theory or model being tested is also expressed quantitatively.
Third, to present evidence that overcomes doubt as to its relevance to a particular hypothesis or theory.
(4) A “methodological revolution” has occurred within phonology:
4.1 The emergence of linguistic phonetics (Ladefoged 1971) and experimental phonology (J. Ohala and Jaeger 1986).
4.2 The Laboratory Phonology conferences (Kingston and Beckman 1990).
4.3 The greater incidence of papers at professional conferences where phonetic and psycholinguistic evidence is given in support of phonological theories at many meetings.
4.4 Several volumes or series of volumes.
4.5 An increase in the number of experimental and large corpus-based phonology papers in scholarly journals.
2009年3月30日 星期一
Experimental Approaches to Phonology---Preface
Experimental approaches to phonology focuses on two central facets:
(1)One focus is on the experimental methods which are foundational to testing hypotheses concerning speakers’ and listeners’ knowledge of their native sound systems, the acquisition of those systems, and the laws that govern sound systems.
In recent years there has been increased use of experimental methods in phonology along with the rise of new techniques. There are several factors responsible for this change.
---(a)Phonology is addressing increasingly diverse questions, so phonology needs to be multifaceted in its methods.
---(b)Technologies relevant to phonological inquiry continue to evolve, as does the availability of large-scale linguistic corpora; new technologies and databases open up new opportunities, new questions, and new grounds on which to test hypotheses.
---(c)Phonological inquiry should be embedded within a framework informed by the biological, social, and cognitive sciences; application of standardized experimental techniques from these disciplines allows us to account for phonological structure in ways that are both consistent with established knowledge in these fields and able to provide a unified account of language and speech.
---(d)A clear demonstration that we understand phonetic and phonological principles is the ability to model relevant behaviors and patterns.
(2)A second focus is on the phonological findings that emerge from the use of experimental techniques and their theoretical implications. This is not a “how to” volme on methods in phonology, but is rather a volume on the types of answers and insights into phonological structure and phonological knowledge provided by experimental approaches to phonology.
Experimental approaches to phonology is organized in terms of major phonological issues:
◎ Explain phonological universals.
◎ Understand the phonetic factors that may give rise to phonological change.
◎ Maintain, enhance, and model phonological contrast.
◎ Assess phonological knowledge.
And techniques are applied to these core issues:
◎ Traditional field methods---Hyman.
◎ Psycholinguistic methods---Derwing; Grønnum and Basbøll; Nooteboom and Quené; M. Ohala.
◎ Corpus-based methods---Kohler; Maddieson; Pycha; Inkelas, and Sprouse.
◎ Aerodynamic and articulatory methods---Bonaventura and Fujimura; Busà; Demolin; Solé.
◎ Acoustic-perceptual methods---Beddor, Brasher, and Narayan; Blevins; Roengpitya; Shin.
◎ Statistical and modeling methods---Engstrand, Frid, and Lindblom; Fujisaki, Gu, and Ohno; Johnson; Nearey and Assmann; Schwartz, Boë, and Abry; Vaissière.
The specific contributions demonstrate that the application of well-established methods from other disciplines to phonology has created new theoretical perspectives that have changed the window through which we view phonology.
There are five parts in Experimental Approaches to Phonology:
Part I delineate various theoretical considerations and provide background concerning the application of methods from other sciences.
Part II, “phonological universals”, are concerned with providing explanations for the similarities that hold across the sound systems of many of the world’s languages.
Part III, “phonetic variation and phonological change”, use experimental methods to illustrate the principle that sound changes due to universal phonetic and cognitive factors have their origins in synchronic variation.
Part IV, “modeling, maintaining, and enhancing phonological contrast”, address how phonological contrasts or features can be modeled and how they are manifested in the phonetic domain.
Part V, “phonotactic and phonological knowledge”, demonstrate the use of psycholinguistic, phonetic, and corpora-based methods to test fundamental claims concerning speakers’ and listeners’knowledge of phonological processes and representations.
Rigorous argumentation often depends on integrating data from an array of traditonally distinct disciplines. John Ohala thinks that experimental phonology might involve any number of methods but is characterized by the experimentalist’s chief concern with “taking as much care as possible to refine one’s beliefs”. He has encouraged generations of researchers to be imaginative, to look to other disciplines for methods that enrich the study of phonology, and to test hypotheses against evidence from novel, non-traditional sources.
(1)One focus is on the experimental methods which are foundational to testing hypotheses concerning speakers’ and listeners’ knowledge of their native sound systems, the acquisition of those systems, and the laws that govern sound systems.
In recent years there has been increased use of experimental methods in phonology along with the rise of new techniques. There are several factors responsible for this change.
---(a)Phonology is addressing increasingly diverse questions, so phonology needs to be multifaceted in its methods.
---(b)Technologies relevant to phonological inquiry continue to evolve, as does the availability of large-scale linguistic corpora; new technologies and databases open up new opportunities, new questions, and new grounds on which to test hypotheses.
---(c)Phonological inquiry should be embedded within a framework informed by the biological, social, and cognitive sciences; application of standardized experimental techniques from these disciplines allows us to account for phonological structure in ways that are both consistent with established knowledge in these fields and able to provide a unified account of language and speech.
---(d)A clear demonstration that we understand phonetic and phonological principles is the ability to model relevant behaviors and patterns.
(2)A second focus is on the phonological findings that emerge from the use of experimental techniques and their theoretical implications. This is not a “how to” volme on methods in phonology, but is rather a volume on the types of answers and insights into phonological structure and phonological knowledge provided by experimental approaches to phonology.
Experimental approaches to phonology is organized in terms of major phonological issues:
◎ Explain phonological universals.
◎ Understand the phonetic factors that may give rise to phonological change.
◎ Maintain, enhance, and model phonological contrast.
◎ Assess phonological knowledge.
And techniques are applied to these core issues:
◎ Traditional field methods---Hyman.
◎ Psycholinguistic methods---Derwing; Grønnum and Basbøll; Nooteboom and Quené; M. Ohala.
◎ Corpus-based methods---Kohler; Maddieson; Pycha; Inkelas, and Sprouse.
◎ Aerodynamic and articulatory methods---Bonaventura and Fujimura; Busà; Demolin; Solé.
◎ Acoustic-perceptual methods---Beddor, Brasher, and Narayan; Blevins; Roengpitya; Shin.
◎ Statistical and modeling methods---Engstrand, Frid, and Lindblom; Fujisaki, Gu, and Ohno; Johnson; Nearey and Assmann; Schwartz, Boë, and Abry; Vaissière.
The specific contributions demonstrate that the application of well-established methods from other disciplines to phonology has created new theoretical perspectives that have changed the window through which we view phonology.
There are five parts in Experimental Approaches to Phonology:
Part I delineate various theoretical considerations and provide background concerning the application of methods from other sciences.
Part II, “phonological universals”, are concerned with providing explanations for the similarities that hold across the sound systems of many of the world’s languages.
Part III, “phonetic variation and phonological change”, use experimental methods to illustrate the principle that sound changes due to universal phonetic and cognitive factors have their origins in synchronic variation.
Part IV, “modeling, maintaining, and enhancing phonological contrast”, address how phonological contrasts or features can be modeled and how they are manifested in the phonetic domain.
Part V, “phonotactic and phonological knowledge”, demonstrate the use of psycholinguistic, phonetic, and corpora-based methods to test fundamental claims concerning speakers’ and listeners’knowledge of phonological processes and representations.
Rigorous argumentation often depends on integrating data from an array of traditonally distinct disciplines. John Ohala thinks that experimental phonology might involve any number of methods but is characterized by the experimentalist’s chief concern with “taking as much care as possible to refine one’s beliefs”. He has encouraged generations of researchers to be imaginative, to look to other disciplines for methods that enrich the study of phonology, and to test hypotheses against evidence from novel, non-traditional sources.
2009年3月23日 星期一
Cognitive Phonology. (quoted from wikipedia)
Cognitive phonology is usually thought of as the study of the ‘sound systems’ of languages. It is an attempt to classify various correspondences between morphemes and phonetic sequences and is a part of cognitive grammar. One attractive feature of cognitive phonology is that other aspects of grammar are directly accessible due to its subordinate relationship with cognitive grammar; thus making relationships between phonology and various aspects of syntax, semantics and pragmatics feasible.
Cognitive Linguistics. (quoted from wikipedia)
In linguistics and cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general. It is characterized by adherence to three central positions. First, it denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and third, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use.
Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. This stands in contrast to the work done in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition. Thus, they argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena — i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax — is essentially conceptual in nature. Moreover, they argue that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data is not significantly different from the storage and retrieval of other knowledge, and use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities as used in other non-linguistic tasks.
Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms of conceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces.
Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, in that language and cognition mutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users.
§Areas of study§
Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study:
Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics
Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas.
Cognitive phonology.
Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include:
Construction grammar and cognitive grammar.
Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending.
Image schemas and force dynamics.
Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity.
Construal and Subjectivity.
Gesture and sign language.
Linguistic relativism.
Cognitive neuroscience.
Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes:
Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition.
Psycholinguistics research.
Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images.
Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seeks to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole. A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it is a relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines.
Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too. Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics. The best summary of the discipline as it is currently stands is Peter Stockwell's Cognitive Poetics.
Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. This stands in contrast to the work done in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition. Thus, they argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena — i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax — is essentially conceptual in nature. Moreover, they argue that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data is not significantly different from the storage and retrieval of other knowledge, and use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities as used in other non-linguistic tasks.
Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms of conceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces.
Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, in that language and cognition mutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users.
§Areas of study§
Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study:
Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics
Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas.
Cognitive phonology.
Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include:
Construction grammar and cognitive grammar.
Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending.
Image schemas and force dynamics.
Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity.
Construal and Subjectivity.
Gesture and sign language.
Linguistic relativism.
Cognitive neuroscience.
Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes:
Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition.
Psycholinguistics research.
Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images.
Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seeks to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole. A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it is a relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines.
Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too. Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics. The best summary of the discipline as it is currently stands is Peter Stockwell's Cognitive Poetics.
2009年3月10日 星期二
Double Consonant.=Gemination.(wikipedia)
In phonetics, gemination happens when a spoken consonant is pronounced for an audibly longer period of time than a short consonant.
Consonant length is distinctive in some languages, for instance Arabic, Estonian(愛沙尼亞語), Finnish, Russian, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Latin, and Luganda. Most languages (including English) do not have distinctive long consonants. Vowel length is distinctive in more languages than consonant length.
Gemination in phonology
Lengthened fricatives, nasals, laterals, approximants, and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops, the "hold" is prolonged. Long consonants are usually around one and a half or two times as long as short consonants, depending on the language. Consonant length is phonemic in Finnish: For example, takka [ˈtakːa] (transcribed with the length sign IPA: [ː] or with a doubled sign [ˈtakka]), 'fireplace', but taka [ˈtaka], 'back'.
In some languages, e.g., Italian, Swedish, Faroese(法羅語), Icelandic and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. That is, a short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, whereas a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant.
In other languages, such as Finnish or Japanese, consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic, such that taka /taka/ "back", takka /takːa/ "fireplace", taakka /taːkːa/ "burden", and so forth are different, unrelated words; this distinction is traceable all the way back to Proto-Uralic. Finnish consonant length is also affected by consonant gradation. Another important phenomenon is that sandhi produces long consonants to word boundaries from an archiphonemic glottal stop, for example otaʔ se → /otasːe/ "take it!"
Distinctive consonant length is usually restricted to certain consonants. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among them are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan, and many of the High Alemannic German dialects (such as Thurgovian). Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length—in fact initial consonant length is very common in Luganda and is used to indicate certain grammatical features. In spoken Finnish and in spoken Italian, long consonants are produced between words by sandhi effects.
Among stops and fricatives, in most languages only voiceless consonants occur geminated.
In various languages
English
In English phonology, consonant length is not distinctive within root words. For instance, 'baggage' is pronounced /ˈbæɡɪdʒ/, not /bæɡːɪdʒ/. Phonetic gemination occurs marginally.
However, gemination does occur across words when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative, nasal, or plosive. For instance:
calm man [kɑːˈmːæn]
this saddle [ðɪˈsːædəl]
black coat [blæˈkːoʊt]
back kick [ˈbækːɪk]
With affricates, however, this does not occur. For instance:
orange juice [ˈɒrɪndʒ dʒuːs]
In some dialects gemination is also found when the suffix -ly follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in:
solely [soʊlːi]
In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. Notable examples where the doubling does affect the meaning are the pairs "unaimed" [ʌnˈeɪmd] versus "unnamed" [ʌˈnːeɪmd], and "holy" [hoʊli] versus "wholly" [ˈhoʊlːi]. (The latter two are identical in many areas, however.)
Estonian
Estonian has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a suprasegmental feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to allophony caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long linna < *linnan "of the city" vs. overlong linna < *linnahan "to the city".
Greek
In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., μέλω [mélɔː] "I am of interest" vs. μέλλω [mélːɔː] "I am going to".
The distinction has been lost in Standard Modern Greek, except in dialects such as the Cypriot-Greek dialect spoken in Cyprus, in varieties of the Aegean sea and elsewhere.
Hungarian
In Hungarian, consonant length is distinctive. For example megy means go, while meggy means sour cherry.
Italian
In Standard Italian, consonant and vowel length are distinctive. For example, "bevve" means "he/she drank", while "beve" means "he/she drinks/is drinking". Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (beve) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (bevve). Double consonants occur not only within words but at word boundaries, where they are pronounced but not necessarily written: "chi + sa" = "chissà'" (who knows) [kis'sa] and "vado a casa" (I am going home) pronounced [va:do akkaza]. See syntactic doubling.
Japanese
In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive. For example, 来た(kita) means 'came; arrived', while 切った(kitta) means 'cut; sliced'.
Latin
In Latin, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., anus "ring" vs. annus "year".
Gemination still occurs in Italian and Catalan, but has been completely lost in French and Spanish.
Polish
In Polish, consonant length is distinctive. For example,
rodziny – 'of the family'; rodzinny' – adjective of 'family'
Grecy – 'Greeks' (noun); greccy – 'Greek' (adjective) — in fact it is pronounced [grɛt͡st͡sɨ].
Russian
In Russian, consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in ванна [ˈvannə] 'bathtub') may occur in several situations.
Word formation or conjugation: длина ([ˈdlʲinə] 'length') → длинный ([ˈdlʲinnɨj] 'long')
Phonological alternations:
высший ([ˈvɨʂːɨj] 'highest').[1]
Wagiman
In Wagiman, an indigenous Australian language, consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates fortis and lenis stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length.
Writing
In written language, consonant length is often indicated by writing a consonant twice ("ss", "kk", "pp", and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, or sokuon in Japanese. Estonian uses 'b', 'd', 'g' for short consonants, and 'p', 't', 'k' and 'pp', 'tt', 'kk' are used for long consonants.
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, long consonants are normally written using the triangular colon ː, e.g., [penːe], though doubled letters are also used (especially for underlying phonemic forms).
In Hungarian, when two characters are put together to make a different sound, they are considered only one letter - for example, sz is one consonant that makes the sound [s] - a digraph. This is 'doubled' by writing ssz (rather than szsz), pronounced [sː]. The other digraphs cs, dz, gy, ly, ny, ty and zs work the same way: ccs, ddz, ggy, lly, nny, tty and zzs, respectively. The only Hungarian trigraph, dzs, can be geminated by ddzs. (B, c, d, etc. - 'bb', 'cc', 'dd', and so on.) The only digraph in Luganda, ny /ɲ/ is doubled in the same way: nny /ɲː/.
In Italian, the sound [kw] (represented by the letter Q) is always doubled by writing cq, except only in the word soqquadro where the letter Q is doubled.
Doubled orthographic consonants do not always indicate a long phonetic consonant. In English, for example, the [n] sound of "running" is not lengthened. Consonant digraphs are used in English to indicate the preceding vowel is a 'lax' vowel, while a single letter often allows a 'tense' vowel to occur. For example, "tapping" /tæpɪŋ/ (from "tap") has a "short A" /æ/, which is distinct from the diphthong "long A" /eɪ/ in "taping" /teɪpɪŋ/ (from "tape"). In Modern Greek, doubled orthographic consonants have no phonetic significance at all.
Catalan uses the raised dot to distinguish a geminated l from a palatal ll. Thus, paral·lel ("parallel") and Llull .
Consonant length is distinctive in some languages, for instance Arabic, Estonian(愛沙尼亞語), Finnish, Russian, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Latin, and Luganda. Most languages (including English) do not have distinctive long consonants. Vowel length is distinctive in more languages than consonant length.
Gemination in phonology
Lengthened fricatives, nasals, laterals, approximants, and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops, the "hold" is prolonged. Long consonants are usually around one and a half or two times as long as short consonants, depending on the language. Consonant length is phonemic in Finnish: For example, takka [ˈtakːa] (transcribed with the length sign IPA: [ː] or with a doubled sign [ˈtakka]), 'fireplace', but taka [ˈtaka], 'back'.
In some languages, e.g., Italian, Swedish, Faroese(法羅語), Icelandic and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. That is, a short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, whereas a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant.
In other languages, such as Finnish or Japanese, consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic, such that taka /taka/ "back", takka /takːa/ "fireplace", taakka /taːkːa/ "burden", and so forth are different, unrelated words; this distinction is traceable all the way back to Proto-Uralic. Finnish consonant length is also affected by consonant gradation. Another important phenomenon is that sandhi produces long consonants to word boundaries from an archiphonemic glottal stop, for example otaʔ se → /otasːe/ "take it!"
Distinctive consonant length is usually restricted to certain consonants. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among them are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan, and many of the High Alemannic German dialects (such as Thurgovian). Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length—in fact initial consonant length is very common in Luganda and is used to indicate certain grammatical features. In spoken Finnish and in spoken Italian, long consonants are produced between words by sandhi effects.
Among stops and fricatives, in most languages only voiceless consonants occur geminated.
In various languages
English
In English phonology, consonant length is not distinctive within root words. For instance, 'baggage' is pronounced /ˈbæɡɪdʒ/, not /bæɡːɪdʒ/. Phonetic gemination occurs marginally.
However, gemination does occur across words when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative, nasal, or plosive. For instance:
calm man [kɑːˈmːæn]
this saddle [ðɪˈsːædəl]
black coat [blæˈkːoʊt]
back kick [ˈbækːɪk]
With affricates, however, this does not occur. For instance:
orange juice [ˈɒrɪndʒ dʒuːs]
In some dialects gemination is also found when the suffix -ly follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in:
solely [soʊlːi]
In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. Notable examples where the doubling does affect the meaning are the pairs "unaimed" [ʌnˈeɪmd] versus "unnamed" [ʌˈnːeɪmd], and "holy" [hoʊli] versus "wholly" [ˈhoʊlːi]. (The latter two are identical in many areas, however.)
Estonian
Estonian has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a suprasegmental feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to allophony caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long linna < *linnan "of the city" vs. overlong linna < *linnahan "to the city".
Greek
In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., μέλω [mélɔː] "I am of interest" vs. μέλλω [mélːɔː] "I am going to".
The distinction has been lost in Standard Modern Greek, except in dialects such as the Cypriot-Greek dialect spoken in Cyprus, in varieties of the Aegean sea and elsewhere.
Hungarian
In Hungarian, consonant length is distinctive. For example megy means go, while meggy means sour cherry.
Italian
In Standard Italian, consonant and vowel length are distinctive. For example, "bevve" means "he/she drank", while "beve" means "he/she drinks/is drinking". Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (beve) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (bevve). Double consonants occur not only within words but at word boundaries, where they are pronounced but not necessarily written: "chi + sa" = "chissà'" (who knows) [kis'sa] and "vado a casa" (I am going home) pronounced [va:do akkaza]. See syntactic doubling.
Japanese
In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive. For example, 来た(kita) means 'came; arrived', while 切った(kitta) means 'cut; sliced'.
Latin
In Latin, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., anus "ring" vs. annus "year".
Gemination still occurs in Italian and Catalan, but has been completely lost in French and Spanish.
Polish
In Polish, consonant length is distinctive. For example,
rodziny – 'of the family'; rodzinny' – adjective of 'family'
Grecy – 'Greeks' (noun); greccy – 'Greek' (adjective) — in fact it is pronounced [grɛt͡st͡sɨ].
Russian
In Russian, consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in ванна [ˈvannə] 'bathtub') may occur in several situations.
Word formation or conjugation: длина ([ˈdlʲinə] 'length') → длинный ([ˈdlʲinnɨj] 'long')
Phonological alternations:
высший ([ˈvɨʂːɨj] 'highest').[1]
Wagiman
In Wagiman, an indigenous Australian language, consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates fortis and lenis stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length.
Writing
In written language, consonant length is often indicated by writing a consonant twice ("ss", "kk", "pp", and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, or sokuon in Japanese. Estonian uses 'b', 'd', 'g' for short consonants, and 'p', 't', 'k' and 'pp', 'tt', 'kk' are used for long consonants.
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, long consonants are normally written using the triangular colon ː, e.g., [penːe], though doubled letters are also used (especially for underlying phonemic forms).
In Hungarian, when two characters are put together to make a different sound, they are considered only one letter - for example, sz is one consonant that makes the sound [s] - a digraph. This is 'doubled' by writing ssz (rather than szsz), pronounced [sː]. The other digraphs cs, dz, gy, ly, ny, ty and zs work the same way: ccs, ddz, ggy, lly, nny, tty and zzs, respectively. The only Hungarian trigraph, dzs, can be geminated by ddzs. (B, c, d, etc. - 'bb', 'cc', 'dd', and so on.) The only digraph in Luganda, ny /ɲ/ is doubled in the same way: nny /ɲː/.
In Italian, the sound [kw] (represented by the letter Q) is always doubled by writing cq, except only in the word soqquadro where the letter Q is doubled.
Doubled orthographic consonants do not always indicate a long phonetic consonant. In English, for example, the [n] sound of "running" is not lengthened. Consonant digraphs are used in English to indicate the preceding vowel is a 'lax' vowel, while a single letter often allows a 'tense' vowel to occur. For example, "tapping" /tæpɪŋ/ (from "tap") has a "short A" /æ/, which is distinct from the diphthong "long A" /eɪ/ in "taping" /teɪpɪŋ/ (from "tape"). In Modern Greek, doubled orthographic consonants have no phonetic significance at all.
Catalan uses the raised dot to distinguish a geminated l from a palatal ll. Thus, paral·lel ("parallel") and Llull .
2009年3月7日 星期六
Consonant Cluster.(wikipedia)
In linguistics, a consonant cluster (or consonant blend) is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits.
Some linguists argue that the term can only be properly applied to those consonant clusters that occur within one syllable. Others contend that consonant clusters are more useful as a definition when they may occur across syllable boundaries. According to the former definition, the longest consonant clusters in the word extra would be /kst/ and /str/, whereas the latter allows /kstr/. The German word Angstschweiß (fear sweat) is another good example.
Consonant clusters in loanwords
Consonant clusters occurring in loanwords do not necessarily follow the cluster limits set by the borrowing language's phonotactics. The Ubykh language's root psta, a loan from Adyghe(阿迪格), violates Ubykh's rule of no more than two initial consonants; also, the English words sphere, sphinx, Greek loans, violate the restraint that two fricatives may not appear adjacently word-initially.
註：Ubykh languages: a language of the Northwestern Caucasian (高加索) group.
Consonant clusters in English
In English, the longest possible initial cluster is three terms, as in split; the longest possible final cluster is four terms, as in twelfths, bursts and glimpsed.
However, it is important to distinguish clusters and digraphs. Clusters are made of two or more consonant sounds, while a digraph is a group of two consonant letters standing for only one sound. For example, in the word ship, the two letters "s" and "h" together represent the single consonant [ʃ]. Also note a combination digraph and cluster as seen in "lightning" with three terms:and ; or "length": .
Consonant clusters crosslinguistically
Languages' phonotactics differ as to what consonant clusters they permit.
Many languages do not permit consonant clusters at all.
(1) Maori(毛利語) and Pirahã, for instance, don't permit any two consecutive consonants in a word.
註1：The Māori (commonly pronounced /mɑɔːri/) are the indigenous Polynesian people of Aotearoa (New Zealand).
註2：An indigenous people of Amazonas, Brazil, who live along the Maici river, a tributary of the Amazon.
(2)Japanese is almost as strict, but it allows clusters of consonant plus /j/ as in Tokyo, the name of the capital city. Across a syllable boundary, it also allows a cluster of a nasal consonant plus another consonant, as in Honshū (the name of the largest island) and tempura.
(3)A great many of the languages of the world are more restrictive than English in terms of consonant clusters; almost every Malayo-Polynesian language permits either one-term clusters or slight variations on a theme. Tahitian(大溪地語), Fijian(斐濟語), Samoan(薩摩亞語) and Hawaiian(夏威夷語) are all of this sort. Standard
(4)Arabic does not permit initial consonant clusters, or more than two consecutive consonants in other positions; neither do most other Semitic languages(閃米特語言). Finnish has initial consonant clusters natively only on South-Western dialects and on foreign loans, and only clusters of three inside the word are allowed. Most spoken languages and dialects, however, are more permissive.
(5)At the other end of the scale, the Kartvelian languages(卡特維爾語言。包括喬治亞語、斯萬語、明格列爾語及拉茲語，通行於高加索山脈主脈以南地區。) of Georgia are drastically more permissive of consonant clustering. Clusters in Georgian of four, five or six terms are not unusual - for instance, brt'q'eli (flat), mc'vrtneli (trainer) and prckvna (peeling) - and if grammatical affixes are used, it allows an eight-term cluster: gvbrdγvnis (he's plucking us). Consonants cannot appear as syllable nuclei in Georgian, so this syllable is analysed as CCCCCCCCVC.
(6)Some Slavic languages such as Slovak(斯洛伐克語) may manifest formidable numbers of consecutive consonants, such as in the words štvrť, zmrzlina, žblnknutie, but the consonants /r/ and /l/ can form syllable nuclei in Slovak, and behave phonologically as vowels in this case. Another notable word is the Croatian(克羅埃西亞語) word opskrbljivanje (supplying) (though note that, like nj, lj is a single consonant here: [lʲ]).
(7)Some Salishan languages(薩利什語言) exhibit long words with no vowels at all, such as the Nuxálk word xłp̓x̣ʷłtłpłłskʷc̓: he had had a bunchberry plant. It is extremely difficult to accurately classify which of these consonants may be acting as the syllable nucleus, and these languages challenge classical notions of exactly what constitutes a syllable.
Some linguists argue that the term can only be properly applied to those consonant clusters that occur within one syllable. Others contend that consonant clusters are more useful as a definition when they may occur across syllable boundaries. According to the former definition, the longest consonant clusters in the word extra would be /kst/ and /str/, whereas the latter allows /kstr/. The German word Angstschweiß (fear sweat) is another good example.
Consonant clusters in loanwords
Consonant clusters occurring in loanwords do not necessarily follow the cluster limits set by the borrowing language's phonotactics. The Ubykh language's root psta, a loan from Adyghe(阿迪格), violates Ubykh's rule of no more than two initial consonants; also, the English words sphere, sphinx, Greek loans, violate the restraint that two fricatives may not appear adjacently word-initially.
註：Ubykh languages: a language of the Northwestern Caucasian (高加索) group.
Consonant clusters in English
In English, the longest possible initial cluster is three terms, as in split; the longest possible final cluster is four terms, as in twelfths, bursts and glimpsed.
However, it is important to distinguish clusters and digraphs. Clusters are made of two or more consonant sounds, while a digraph is a group of two consonant letters standing for only one sound. For example, in the word ship, the two letters "s" and "h" together represent the single consonant [ʃ]. Also note a combination digraph and cluster as seen in "lightning" with three terms:
Consonant clusters crosslinguistically
Languages' phonotactics differ as to what consonant clusters they permit.
Many languages do not permit consonant clusters at all.
(1) Maori(毛利語) and Pirahã, for instance, don't permit any two consecutive consonants in a word.
註1：The Māori (commonly pronounced /mɑɔːri/) are the indigenous Polynesian people of Aotearoa (New Zealand).
註2：An indigenous people of Amazonas, Brazil, who live along the Maici river, a tributary of the Amazon.
(2)Japanese is almost as strict, but it allows clusters of consonant plus /j/ as in Tokyo, the name of the capital city. Across a syllable boundary, it also allows a cluster of a nasal consonant plus another consonant, as in Honshū (the name of the largest island) and tempura.
(3)A great many of the languages of the world are more restrictive than English in terms of consonant clusters; almost every Malayo-Polynesian language permits either one-term clusters or slight variations on a theme. Tahitian(大溪地語), Fijian(斐濟語), Samoan(薩摩亞語) and Hawaiian(夏威夷語) are all of this sort. Standard
(4)Arabic does not permit initial consonant clusters, or more than two consecutive consonants in other positions; neither do most other Semitic languages(閃米特語言). Finnish has initial consonant clusters natively only on South-Western dialects and on foreign loans, and only clusters of three inside the word are allowed. Most spoken languages and dialects, however, are more permissive.
(5)At the other end of the scale, the Kartvelian languages(卡特維爾語言。包括喬治亞語、斯萬語、明格列爾語及拉茲語，通行於高加索山脈主脈以南地區。) of Georgia are drastically more permissive of consonant clustering. Clusters in Georgian of four, five or six terms are not unusual - for instance, brt'q'eli (flat), mc'vrtneli (trainer) and prckvna (peeling) - and if grammatical affixes are used, it allows an eight-term cluster: gvbrdγvnis (he's plucking us). Consonants cannot appear as syllable nuclei in Georgian, so this syllable is analysed as CCCCCCCCVC.
(6)Some Slavic languages such as Slovak(斯洛伐克語) may manifest formidable numbers of consecutive consonants, such as in the words štvrť, zmrzlina, žblnknutie, but the consonants /r/ and /l/ can form syllable nuclei in Slovak, and behave phonologically as vowels in this case. Another notable word is the Croatian(克羅埃西亞語) word opskrbljivanje (supplying) (though note that, like nj, lj is a single consonant here: [lʲ]).
(7)Some Salishan languages(薩利什語言) exhibit long words with no vowels at all, such as the Nuxálk word xłp̓x̣ʷłtłpłłskʷc̓: he had had a bunchberry plant. It is extremely difficult to accurately classify which of these consonants may be acting as the syllable nucleus, and these languages challenge classical notions of exactly what constitutes a syllable.
2009年3月3日 星期二
宇多田ヒカル《Flavor Of Life》
歌手：宇多田ヒカル
作詞：Utada Hikaru
作曲：Utada Hikaru
「ありがとう」と 君 に言わ れ ると
a ri ga to u to kimi ni i wa re ru to
謝 謝 你 說
→當你對我說了「謝謝」之後
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
さよ うなら の 後 も 解 けぬ魔法
sa yo u na ra no ato mo to ke nu mahou
再見 之後 也 解除 否定詞 魔法
→說再見之後，魔法也沒有解除
淡 く ほろ 苦 い
awa ku ho ro niga i
淡淡 苦澀
→有點淡淡的苦澀
The flavor of life, The flavor of life.
友達 で も 恋人 で も な い中間地点 で
tomodachi de mo koibito de mo na i chukantiten de
既非朋友 既非戀人 中間點 介系詞
→在既非朋友也非戀人的中間點
收穫 の日を 夢見 て る 青 い フ ルーツ
syukaku no hi wo yumemi te ru ao i fu ru tsu
收穫的日子 格助詞 夢想 進行式 青的 水果
→夢想收穫的日子，未成熟的水果
あと 一歩 が 踏 み出 せな い せいで Yeah
a to ippo ga fu mi da se na i se i de
還有 一步 踏出 否定詞 緣故 因為
→結果都是因為無法踏出這一步
じれっ た いの な ん の っ てbaby Ah (本句待確認)
「ありがとう」と 君 に言わ れ ると
a ri ga to u to kimi ni i wa re ru to
謝 謝 你 說
→當你對我說了「謝謝」之後
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
さよ うなら の 後 も 解 けぬ魔法
sa yo u na ra no ato mo to ke nu mahou
再見 之後 也 解除否定詞 魔法
→說再見之後，魔法也沒有解除
淡 く ほろ 苦 い
awa ku ho ro niga i
淡淡 苦澀
→有點淡淡的苦澀
The flavor of life, The flavor of life.
甘 いだ けの 誘 い 文句
ama i da ke no saso i monku
甜的 只有 誘惑 話語
→甜蜜誘惑的字句
味気 の な いトー ク
ajike no na i to ku
沒有味道 毒藥(不確定)
→是枯燥乏味的毒藥
そ ん な 物 には 興味 も そそ ら れ な い
so n na mono ni wa kyoumi mo soso ra re na i
那樣的東西 介系詞 興趣 也 引起 能 不
(無法引起)
→那樣的東西也無法引起我的興趣
思 い通 り に いか な い 時 だ っ て Yeah
omo i to ri ni i ka na i toki da te
所想的 按照 不能 儘管
→儘管不能按照心中所想的去做
人生 捨てたも ん じゃ な いっ て Ah
jin sei su te ta mo n jya na i te
人生 捨棄 東西 不是
→並非要捨棄人生
ど う し た の と 急 に 聞 かれると
do u shi ta no to kyuu ni ki ka re ru to
怎麼樣 急 格助詞 被問 一…就…
→當你問我怎麼了
ううん、何 で も な い
uun nan de mo na i
沒事
→我說：嗯嗯，沒事
さ よう ならの 後 に 消える笑顔
sa yo u na ra no ato ni ki e ru egao
再見 之後 消失 笑臉
→說完再見之後消失的笑臉
私 ら し くない
watashi ra shi ku na i
像我 否定詞
→並不像我
信 じた いと 願え ば 願う ほど
shin ji ta i to negae ba nega u ho do
相信 想 越是希望…越是…
→越是希望讓自己相信
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
「愛し てる」よ よりも 「大好き」のほうが
ai shi te ru yo yo ri mo dai su ki no ho u ga
我愛你 更 最喜歡你
→比起說「我愛你」,說「最喜歡你」
君 ら し いん じ ゃ ない
kimi ra shi i n jya na i
像你 類似英文”isn’t it”
→這才更像你，不是嗎？
The flavor of life
忘 れか ていた 人 の 温 も りを 突然 思 い 出 す 頃
wasu re ka te i ta hito no o mo ri wo totsuzen omo i da su goro
忘記 進行式 過去式 人 溫度 突然 回憶 時候
(忘 記)
→突然回憶起那個快被忘記的人
降 り 積 も る 雪 の 白 さを も っ と 素直 に 喜 びでいよう
fu ri tsu mo ru yuki no shiro sa wo mo to sunao ni yorokobi de i you
更 不加修飾地 喜悅
→想起片片積雪的白，老實說，令人無法開心
ダイア モ ンド よ りも 軟 ら かく て
da i a mo n do yo ri mo yawa ra ka ku te
diamond鑽石 比 軟
温 かな 未来 手 に したいよ
atata ka na mirai te ni shita i yo
溫暖的 未來 手介系詞
→比起鑽石，將柔軟且溫暖的未來放在手心
限 り ある 時間 を 君 と 過 ご し たい
kagi ri a ru jikan wo kimi to su go shi ta i
極限 有 時間 和 相處 想要
→在有限的時間內，只想要和你相處 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46mSRnvbpIE
作詞：Utada Hikaru
作曲：Utada Hikaru
「ありがとう」と 君 に言わ れ ると
a ri ga to u to kimi ni i wa re ru to
謝 謝 你 說
→當你對我說了「謝謝」之後
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
さよ うなら の 後 も 解 けぬ魔法
sa yo u na ra no ato mo to ke nu mahou
再見 之後 也 解除 否定詞 魔法
→說再見之後，魔法也沒有解除
淡 く ほろ 苦 い
awa ku ho ro niga i
淡淡 苦澀
→有點淡淡的苦澀
The flavor of life, The flavor of life.
友達 で も 恋人 で も な い中間地点 で
tomodachi de mo koibito de mo na i chukantiten de
既非朋友 既非戀人 中間點 介系詞
→在既非朋友也非戀人的中間點
收穫 の日を 夢見 て る 青 い フ ルーツ
syukaku no hi wo yumemi te ru ao i fu ru tsu
收穫的日子 格助詞 夢想 進行式 青的 水果
→夢想收穫的日子，未成熟的水果
あと 一歩 が 踏 み出 せな い せいで Yeah
a to ippo ga fu mi da se na i se i de
還有 一步 踏出 否定詞 緣故 因為
→結果都是因為無法踏出這一步
じれっ た いの な ん の っ てbaby Ah (本句待確認)
「ありがとう」と 君 に言わ れ ると
a ri ga to u to kimi ni i wa re ru to
謝 謝 你 說
→當你對我說了「謝謝」之後
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
さよ うなら の 後 も 解 けぬ魔法
sa yo u na ra no ato mo to ke nu mahou
再見 之後 也 解除否定詞 魔法
→說再見之後，魔法也沒有解除
淡 く ほろ 苦 い
awa ku ho ro niga i
淡淡 苦澀
→有點淡淡的苦澀
The flavor of life, The flavor of life.
甘 いだ けの 誘 い 文句
ama i da ke no saso i monku
甜的 只有 誘惑 話語
→甜蜜誘惑的字句
味気 の な いトー ク
ajike no na i to ku
沒有味道 毒藥(不確定)
→是枯燥乏味的毒藥
そ ん な 物 には 興味 も そそ ら れ な い
so n na mono ni wa kyoumi mo soso ra re na i
那樣的東西 介系詞 興趣 也 引起 能 不
(無法引起)
→那樣的東西也無法引起我的興趣
思 い通 り に いか な い 時 だ っ て Yeah
omo i to ri ni i ka na i toki da te
所想的 按照 不能 儘管
→儘管不能按照心中所想的去做
人生 捨てたも ん じゃ な いっ て Ah
jin sei su te ta mo n jya na i te
人生 捨棄 東西 不是
→並非要捨棄人生
ど う し た の と 急 に 聞 かれると
do u shi ta no to kyuu ni ki ka re ru to
怎麼樣 急 格助詞 被問 一…就…
→當你問我怎麼了
ううん、何 で も な い
uun nan de mo na i
沒事
→我說：嗯嗯，沒事
さ よう ならの 後 に 消える笑顔
sa yo u na ra no ato ni ki e ru egao
再見 之後 消失 笑臉
→說完再見之後消失的笑臉
私 ら し くない
watashi ra shi ku na i
像我 否定詞
→並不像我
信 じた いと 願え ば 願う ほど
shin ji ta i to negae ba nega u ho do
相信 想 越是希望…越是…
→越是希望讓自己相信
な ん だ か 切 な い
na n da ka setsu na i
不知道為什麼 難過
→總覺得難過
「愛し てる」よ よりも 「大好き」のほうが
ai shi te ru yo yo ri mo dai su ki no ho u ga
我愛你 更 最喜歡你
→比起說「我愛你」,說「最喜歡你」
君 ら し いん じ ゃ ない
kimi ra shi i n jya na i
像你 類似英文”isn’t it”
→這才更像你，不是嗎？
The flavor of life
忘 れか ていた 人 の 温 も りを 突然 思 い 出 す 頃
wasu re ka te i ta hito no o mo ri wo totsuzen omo i da su goro
忘記 進行式 過去式 人 溫度 突然 回憶 時候
(忘 記)
→突然回憶起那個快被忘記的人
降 り 積 も る 雪 の 白 さを も っ と 素直 に 喜 びでいよう
fu ri tsu mo ru yuki no shiro sa wo mo to sunao ni yorokobi de i you
更 不加修飾地 喜悅
→想起片片積雪的白，老實說，令人無法開心
ダイア モ ンド よ りも 軟 ら かく て
da i a mo n do yo ri mo yawa ra ka ku te
diamond鑽石 比 軟
温 かな 未来 手 に したいよ
atata ka na mirai te ni shita i yo
溫暖的 未來 手介系詞
→比起鑽石，將柔軟且溫暖的未來放在手心
限 り ある 時間 を 君 と 過 ご し たい
kagi ri a ru jikan wo kimi to su go shi ta i
極限 有 時間 和 相處 想要
→在有限的時間內，只想要和你相處 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46mSRnvbpIE
2009年2月24日 星期二
Phonology(1)
(1)語音:
A speech sound or gesture considered a physical event without regard to its place in the phonology of a language.
在人類語言連鎖活動的過程中，最具體而可以直接觀察的部分是語音。語音可以聽得見，而且也可以記錄下來。從最具體的層次看，語音是聲波，聲波是空氣分子(particle)振動所導致的氣壓變化，是物理的現象。
(2)語音資料庫:
(3)語言分類:
(4)音韻學經典著作:
(4.1)Solé, Maria-Josep. Beddor Patrice, Speeter. Ohala, Manjari (2007) Experimental Approaches To Phonology.
(4.2)Aikin, W. A. (2001) The Voice: An Introduction to Practical Phonology.
(4.3)Archangeli, D., & Langedoen, D. T. (1997). Optimality Theory : An Overview.
(4.4) Broe, M. B., Pierrehumbert, J. B., & Pierrehumbert, J. (2000). Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Language Acquisition and the Lexicon.
(4.5)Dekkers, J., Leeuw, F. van der, & Weijer, J. van de. (2001). Optimality Theory : Phonology, Syntax and Acquisition.
(4.6)Durand, J., Laks, B., & Levitt, M. (2002). Phonetics, Phonology, and Cognition.
(4.7)Fox, A. (2000). Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure : The Phonology of Suprasegmentals.
(4.8)Goldsmith, J. A. (1999). Phonological Theory : The Essential Readings.
(4.9)Gussmann, E. (2002). Phonology : Analysis and Theory. (4.10)Kager, R. (1999). Optimality Theory.
(5)音韻學家(學派):
(5.1)音韻學家，如: Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857-1913) ; Edward Sapir ; Leonard Bloomfield (American Structuralist Phonology).
(5.2)音韻學派，如:Historical Phonology; Evolutionary Phonology; American Structuralist Phonology ; London School: Prosodic Phonology (1946,1757) ; Dependency Phonology (1950s,1986,1987).
(6)音韻系統實證:
(7)應用音韻學:
(8)語音處理器官:
A speech sound or gesture considered a physical event without regard to its place in the
在人類語言連鎖活動的過程中，最具體而可以直接觀察的部分是語音。語音可以聽得見，而且也可以記錄下來。從最具體的層次看，語音是聲波，聲波是空氣分子(particle)振動所導致的氣壓變化，是物理的現象。
(2)語音資料庫
(3)語言分類
(4)音韻學經典著作
(4.1)Solé, Maria-Josep. Beddor Patrice, Speeter. Ohala, Manjari (2007) Experimental Approaches To Phonology.
(4.2)Aikin, W. A. (2001) The Voice: An Introduction to Practical Phonology.
(4.3)Archangeli, D., & Langedoen, D. T. (1997). Optimality Theory : An Overview.
(4.4) Broe, M. B., Pierrehumbert, J. B., & Pierrehumbert, J. (2000). Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Language Acquisition and the Lexicon.
(4.5)Dekkers, J., Leeuw, F. van der, & Weijer, J. van de. (2001). Optimality Theory : Phonology, Syntax and Acquisition.
(4.6)Durand, J., Laks, B., & Levitt, M. (2002). Phonetics, Phonology, and Cognition.
(4.7)Fox, A. (2000). Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure : The Phonology of Suprasegmentals.
(4.8)Goldsmith, J. A. (1999). Phonological Theory : The Essential Readings.
(4.9)Gussmann, E. (2002). Phonology : Analysis and Theory. (4.10)Kager, R. (1999). Optimality Theory.
(5)音韻學家(學派)
(5.1)音韻學家，如:
(5.2)音韻學派，如:Historical Phonology; Evolutionary Phonology; American Structuralist Phonology ; London School: Prosodic Phonology (1946,1757) ; Dependency Phonology (1950s,1986,1987).
(6)音韻系統實證:
(7)應用音韻學
(8)語音處理器官
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